REGISTER NOW FOR THE KONG AGENTIC ERA WORLD TOUR GOVERN A2A TRAFFIC WITH KONG'S NEW AGENT GATEWAY WHY GARTNER’S “CONTEXT MESH” CHANGES EVERYTHING DON’T MISS API + AI SUMMIT 2026 SEPT 30 – OCT 1
We're Entering the Age of AI Connectivity [Read more](/blog/news/the-age-of-ai-connectivity)Read moreProducts & Agents:
[Engineering](/blog/engineering)Engineering
February 18, 2020
5 min read

# Infrastructure as Code without Infrastructure

Dennis Kelly

## Introduction

[Infrastructure as Code (IaC)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure_as_code)Infrastructure as Code (IaC) is a powerful process - replacing manual, error prone and expensive operations with automated, consistent and quick provisioning of resources. In many cases, IaC is dependent on existing infrastructure, typically including a configuration management system. Chef, Puppet and SaltStack are all commonly referenced players in this market, each requiring resources to be in place and having their own difficulties in setup and maintenance. As we move to microservices and container orchestration, our need for resource-intensive and complex tooling to provision infrastructure and application dependencies diminishes. So how do you solve the chicken-and-egg problem of standing up IaC without relying on other infrastructure?

Our solution in [Amazon Web Services (AWS)](https://aws.amazon.com)Amazon Web Services (AWS) was [Terraform](https://www.terraform.io)Terraform, [cloud-init](https://cloud-init.io)cloud-init, [Minimal Ubuntu](https://wiki.ubuntu.com/Minimal)Minimal Ubuntu and [Ansible](https://www.ansible.com)Ansible. Terraform was an easy choice given our existing use and expertise with the product for provisioning in AWS. We were building Amazon Machine Images (AMIs) using [Packer](https://www.packer.io)Packer with a minimal set of software packages to bootstrap systems for dynamic configuration based on their role by our configuration management system. However, every change, no matter how subtle it was, required building a new AMI. It also didn't save much on boot time since an agent would configure the system dynamically at first boot-up. We were also spending a lot of time maintaining a configuration management system and scripts, as well as keeping up on [Domain Specific Languages (DSLs)](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain-specific_language)Domain Specific Languages (DSLs).

## Minimal Ubuntu

Enter Minimal Ubuntu - images designed for automating deployment at scale with an optimized kernel and boot process. Needing only to install a small set of packages and most of our tooling at the orchestration layer, we are still able to provision a system that is ready for production traffic in under four minutes. The simplicity of these images also provide greater security and ease of administration.

Cloud-init is installed on Minimal Ubuntu, which allows further configuration of the system using user data. Given the lack of documentation and more sophisticated features of other configuration management systems, we were still looking for something else. Ansible became an attractive option for several reasons: simplistic yet powerful approach to automation, readable configuration and templating using YAML and Jinja2 versus a DSL, and the community contributions and industry embracement.

## Ansible

Most of the documentation for Ansible, though, focuses on the use of a master server that pushes configuration to clients. This doesn't solve the problem of IaC without relying on infrastructure. Also, maintaining dynamic inventories of clients and pushing configurations to systems in auto scaling groups that need to be ready for production traffic as soon as possible did not make sense. Ansible has a concept of local playbooks, but there isn't much light shed on the power and simplicity of it. This blog post will walk you through combining these tools to build a bastion host configured with [Duo Multi-Factor Authentication (MFA)](https://duo.com/product/multi-factor-authentication-mfa)Duo Multi-Factor Authentication (MFA) for SSH and a framework to easily add additional host roles. For brevity, other configuration of our bastion hosts is left out. You will want to perform further tuning and hardening depending on your environment.

## Terraform

Starting with Terraform (note all examples are using version 0.12.x) at the account/IAM level, you will need a EC2 instance profile with access to an S3 bucket where the Ansible playbook [tarball](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tar_(computing))tarball will be stored. Terraform for creating the S3 bucket is left to the reader - it is straightforward, and many examples exist for it. It is recommended to enable encryption at rest on the S3 bucket as sensitive information may be required to bootstrap a host:

data "aws_iam_policy_document" "ansible" {
  statement {
    actions = [
      "s3:ListBucket",
      "s3:GetObject",
    ]
    resources = ["${aws_s3_bucket.ansible.arn}/*"]
  }
}

resource "aws_iam_policy" "ansible" { 
  name        = "ansible"
  description = "Access to the Ansible S3 bucket"
  policy      = data.aws_iam_policy_document.ansible.json
}

data "aws_iam_policy_document" "bastion" {
  statement {
    actions = ["sts:AssumeRole"]

    principals {
      type        = "Service"
      identifiers = ["ec2.amazonaws.com"]
    }
  }
}

resource "aws_iam_role" "bastion" {
  name               = "bastion"
  assume_role_policy = data.aws_iam_policy_document.main.json
}

resource "aws_iam_role_policy_attachment" "bastion" {
  role       = aws_iam_role.bastion.name
  policy_arn = aws_iam_policy.ansible.arn
}

resource "aws_iam_instance_profile" "bastion" {
  name = aws_iam_role.bastion.name
  role = aws_iam_role.bastion.name
}}

With a policy to read the S3 bucket and an instance profile the bastion host can assume, define the bastion host EC2 instance:

resource "aws_instance" "main" {
  ami           = var.ami
  instance_type = var.instance_type

  user_data = data.template_cloudinit_config.main.rendered
  key_name  = var.ssh_key

  iam_instance_profile = "bastion"

  subnet_id                   = var.subnet_id
  vpc_security_group_ids      = [var.vpc_security_group_ids]
  associate_public_ip_address = true
}

Most variables are self-explanatory. For this exercise, we will bring attention to the *ami* and *user_data* values. The *ami* value can be found by selecting the version of Ubuntu and the Amazon region for your instance here: [https://wiki.ubuntu.com/Minimal](https://wiki.ubuntu.com/Minimal)https://wiki.ubuntu.com/Minimal.

The user_data value defines the cloud-init configuration:

data "aws_region" "current" {}

data "template_cloudinit_config" "main" {
  gzip          = true
  base64_encode = true

  part {
    filename     = "init.cfg"
    content_type = "text/cloud-config"
    content      = templatefile("${path.module}/cloud-init.cfg", {}) 
  }

  part {
    content_type = "text/x-shellscript"
    content      = templatefile(
      "${path.module}/cloud-init.sh.tmpl",
      {
        ROLE   = var.role
        ENV    = var.environment
        VPC    = var.vpc
        REGION = data.aws_region.current.name
      }
    )
  }
}

The cloud-init.cfg specifies a minimal configuration - installing the AWS CLI tool and Ansible to handle the rest of the process:

# Package configuration
apt:
  primary:
    - arches: [default]

apt_update: true
package_upgrade: true
packages:
  - ansible
  - awscli

write_files:
  - path: /etc/apt/apt.conf.d/00InstallRecommends
    owner: root:root
    permissions: '0644'
    content: |
      APT::Install-Recommends "false";

The shell script following the cloud-init template downloads the Ansible playbook tarball and executes it. Variables for the *environment* (dev, stage, prod), *VPC name* and *AWS region* are passed to customize the configuration based on those settings. The role variable is passed as a tag to define what role the host will play, somewhat correlating to Ansible roles (explained later):

#!/bin/sh
# HOME is not defined for cloud-init
# Ansible, and likely others, don't like that
HOME=/root 
export HOME

cd /opt
aws s3 cp s3://s3-bucket-name/ansible.tar.gz .
if [ $? != 0 ]; then
 echo "Error: Cannot download from S3, check instance profile."
 exit 1
fi

tar zxf ansible.tar.gz && rm -f ansible.tar.gz
ansible-playbook --connection local --inventory 127.0.0.1, \
  --extra-vars env=${ENV} --extra-vars vpc=${VPC} --extra-vars region=${REGION} \
  --tags ${ROLE} ansible/site.yml

The Ansible tarball is created from another Git repository with the Ansible playbook and uploaded to the secure S3 bucket. The directory layout is as follows:

ansible/
    roles/                      # Ansible roles, see https://docs.ansible.com/ansible/latest/user_guide/playbooks_reuse_roles.html
        common/                 
            tasks/
                main.yml        # Applied to all systems
        bastion/
            tasks/
                main.yml        # Bastion host "role"
        duo/
            files/
                common_auth     # /etc/pam.d/common_auth 
                sshd            # /etc/pam.d/sshd
                sshd_config     # /etc/ssh/sshd_config
            tasks/
                main.yml
    site.yml                    # Master playbook
    vars/                       # Variable configuration
        [environment]/          # i.e. dev, stage, prod
            main.yml            # Variables specific to an environment
            [vpc]/              # VPC name, i.e. dev-ops
                main.yml        # Variables specific to an environment and VPC 
                [region]/       # i.e. us-west-2
                    main.yml    # Variables specific to the environment, VPC and region
        main.yml                # Global variables

[Ansible roles](https://docs.ansible.com/ansible/latest/user_guide/playbooks_reuse_roles.html)Ansible roles provide convention over configuration to simplify units of work. We break out each package into a role so they can be reused. We leverage [Ansible tags](https://docs.ansible.com/ansible/latest/user_guide/playbooks_tags.html)Ansible tags to associate Ansible roles with our concept of a *host "role*,*"* i.e., *bastion*. This keeps *site.yml* simple and clear:

- hosts: localhost
  connection: local

  roles:
    - { role: common, tags: ["always"] }
    - { role: bastion, tags: ["bastion"] }

*always* is a special tag, specifying to always run a task regardless of the tag specified at execution. It provides the mechanism to run common tasks regardless of the host "*role*.*"* For this example, we will only use *roles/common/tasks/main.yml* to load our variable hierarchy but could include tasks for creating admin users, installing default packages, etc.:

---
- name: Include site variables
  include_vars: vars/main.yml

- name: Include environment variables
  include_vars: vars/{{ env }}/main.yml

- name: Include VPC variables
  include_vars: vars/{{ env }}/{{ vpc }}/main.yml

- name: Include region variables
  include_vars: vars/{{ env }}/{{ vpc }}/{{ region }}/main.yml

This provides a powerful and flexible framework for defining variables at different levels. Site level variables apply to all hosts. Variables that might differ between dev and prod (i.e., logging host) can be defined at the environment level in *vars/dev/main.yml* and *vars/prod/main.yml*. *main.yml* must exist for each environment, VPC and AWS region, if only just "—" for its content. In this example, we will define one site level variable in *vars/main.yml*:

---
aws:
  secrets: s3-bucket-name/secrets

This defines the variable *aws.secrets*, an S3 bucket and path for downloading files that need to be secured outside of the Ansible playbook Git repository. This value can be customized per environment, VPC and/or region by moving it down the variable hierarchy. Moving onto bastion, *roles/bastion/tasks/main.yml* disables selective TCP ACKs and installs Ansible roles for software, which for this example, is limited to duo:

---
- name: Disable selective acks (CVE-2019-11477)
  sysctl:
    name: net.ipv4.tcp_sack
    value: '0'
    state: present

- include_role:
    name: "{{ item }}"
  with_items:
    - duo

Lastly, we have duo in *roles/duo/tasks.yml*:

---
- name: Add key
  apt_key:
    data: |
      -----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

      mQINBF25pcQBEADBIWPx6DJ+EItyXif/zgDZjsuwi/4pbd5NBHVpdsK2piteY1h4
      QG0CtfmCrwPRz/q5RlCNKLZ8HJiMrURGGwbts9BM57aVmn7C/OsPo3oOiOOpiiUA
      qFNhuTTQQ812uO+2sULt3/UdRiKUquUgNpdp6SNkNjg5lvKCOWIhKp8l3JbvI572
      0DnSuLGP9pSyQulz7B6vsCQHq1Ib7AArxk88+9QeUmhVKbXHf0K3vaQkmm7KaveK
      fgyxJfNh6ilFBTZq8yxY362vP18goEdOl+2pK0If2r4w1gjEXVLyGaYHKqr7vVC7
      tGYDP6ibzXNDhTNbvN+XZOlk85ttu77TRiKglcuOz3rAY6OybxUo12MYGv3vntgl
      OD6XaL9+dYPVW8R5886Nq0W88wRNUa0jpY1tvO1h7j4OFvSk2xDQml8ugvbvBTZC
      XuzCx//m8UyF617nlUxY4gMs/GiWs7PlJ/Bjd8bNTaATMCdD3s3RX9XUEAUMo+LM
      k4hM+EaWoG++Pym/009fgdI0AAZa7igNTPcLdvAZTGVJ1K7V/QlKIz3RwTfozUtR
      a3/1XfS2Zllj/Nzmx7FI1aWyTScyfl44jfjpnPc1BvUfCmuV/28pKCYsJ3yPtN4i
      ccQKERQF9vUEnCZ67DmksFsrKrn9n38jd02or8ZzRRDx7NJOILhhhlzKTwARAQAB
      tDJEdW8gU2VjdXJpdHkgUGFja2FnZSBTaWduaW5nIDxkZXZAZHVvc2VjdXJpdHku
      Y29tPokCVAQTAQgAPhYhBN8aYLVu/i3IyoqaYQHvmOkQRI/bBQJduaXEAhsDBQkJ
      ZgGABQsJCAcCBhUKCQgLAgQWAgMBAh4BAheAAAoJEAHvmOkQRI/bDjkP/0dUsJgx
      qTqPDgKimmLUM6xL3cuWcoIWe7kh0GVqBEY9wPJzL9aaggkURjbwtQcHiNBV2Mk5
      M6IaoIVQiSGHSob7il1sCSDRb7zWcZPqZqB9QtRBOgZcOLGxW62+UIGXPCQVvaCy
      FDxsmwMnPRYz4rS3X5zK1c2Fo9D59rQmTjj71UGVliNNq8GMH64I/goa4pEryk2t
      Jeby82la6gP+BPHFNc5hi/em3xxdgO16WKfe8uN0NmRZvOUnpThHbUzDjfj3uEf9
      /W6XcJfIyqdGMLpzrjkdaWr1CZg4XrF5q0c0hDzxrshNV04iFreg4ds5HsboNnPX
      M5HN60R1zeqBu+tVADSKYLpGOCczZTOUzYhlJfNOVSd83DE9vaeVTZQYgOK/1oVY
      WYPnr0spZ06FWb/1+irSWXhdDU8tAzRO3IFq4M8eBEkCrOt17dWDfgOcXN/I34IU
      I6RiAUVNc3W1aEB6r9WDPCDr9WBxrwMlceNrwFSJl9InrVIfJG54E6iYR/vBxyzS
      hjFd5PJxNQIhTTOfA4YplDoviSHw/3Ci64OOPmh06Z5zfd+HOH7E+I9SRk2GunPU
      odvnpWELquFzA9OwDLYUlUQC7cYHnGCzzHKHcxFuQKmH1hnAuBvq5H6OzlAgjuA7
      UX82Bl6FLsm7gJUmHq7xCM3zRG3ZKus/JeUJuQINBF25pcQBEADp3Z1ovqhzfFM6
      Oe/0zme9ynaGGcpxktncuvcpirsI5CYjqHWi11g1dG0HXANGDn2+kHrrJOwO6fVQ
      c4d1iImKoTR6ZmYd/Ae7TthsmjZXe3P/s15JpEMhsvwkSH6FOkrCkhgaNArZr6yn
      kb0s2zcJ69h7gz1rmnjmCsDjM9C/Pa99th4CBb2yo8Xq9mSjQKVCHcfFdrdGOMJc
      YtZCJz6Uno4CQSRPAq0l5lxM+HXhkUdPNdoxSUV4IIwZnxxHhXA+WSMC0Px04nVi
      XVDlJ+Vb5Nhf8bbJaiQXoHGFJY7u8+6QruoPQNmKkD7QwVdoEkd8Pb/6Q7ih5lIn
      1ksjIG1G+N8AhkOZCm0aBz/uzMBZV8lswjNW1JEcXafe3QOnS3MxqHUXUzLN3tMB
      bG6me8ENbOMlBGCQa22NVf/C1KGL9nZts0Ljz9eNQTT1mxRvuU4twScomFVXh5ZF
      0LWQdlxVueaebeXQBAtdROyd2wKGO+KMuJXD6Brqh2fCx+kK+zh7cFHLeS4rKLGt
      7h9yI+lbmFArzVIEuiTYx5pspzYrclbiHOGYBKhV/b7iJ66zSxy2FryPzfeKBWzX
      C3kpVQ3RrhMyykUvfMfyx9+gbrCvwz7BoYD0EguPfnYYB2V7A5kM/ljwVRKY2mDL
      UKQ8v12pgegp/TeWvkKJ4AGr06lzNwARAQABiQI8BBgBCAAmFiEE3xpgtW7+LcjK
      ipphAe+Y6RBEj9sFAl25pcQCGwwFCQlmAYAACgkQAe+Y6RBEj9so2w//TF2rdbgD
      boKM2odifrEWv11HQzVpu/xU7gN0vvha11P5qj7V9yGgy31kRCtPZ9Xp/UfLAIaw
      vP85MydLY5/eUa7pRf207Hle5jl4L6g/Uuv41v9NRyOdldXzFmk0XvJfJ9ptXPTR
      0E3m5t0IK2XzVhQhgCgyMb27Eh+kPbegnQV8hRNk8PVpFQNjDh6lDv7aFxmjt76x
      kPUTsFriC3NRDMdun5es+74NMfTuNLF8EPcVfByR+tQuKPCXaSzux02arYFEkVdT
      w9EOrNNagWX9wbI5tB80XNd1BcHCV1QOA9XCeQmcvBN5ww7nOTOwDjAMIqyoJX9D
      l9l/AFJa0PH3xENICpHmapS+LJfgKD1MNfQNKl8nTLRINOXnH/7L4q7LFn024nZa
      B4MvOMq7P3Hs2/iZlfIumk2AeeMemR2G72erPa6zx6I2dyp16rdi0mYHS0m4T+ud
      Ye7pnNwU7EqkuUYcd1oj9txfKFYj0nlOhEzSnLnshr3LsBVtzJi42RZc10rIWZbZ
      bXkcoJgoBo0P+QACduNVZ072OqDquv/OpU3UVszwotMV+IANJ9cX3bXKBCjevfTP
      VsXFL+WQaiGz2OcyD2uFLtLeHCDuZ6oL3Rw9pgT4E5ZXKYj4xd1qXhQea0sQu+8I
      5oRM/JeaPuYz7lH+PhzcqVqpKaWDL0Q9ixs=
      =EHJ5
      -----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----

- name: Add repository
  apt_repository:
    repo: deb [arch=amd64] https://pkg.duosecurity.com/Ubuntu bionic main
    state: present
    filename: duo

- name: Install
  apt:
    name: duo-unix
    state: present
    update_cache: yes

- name: Download configuration
  command: "aws s3 cp s3://{{ aws.secrets }}/{{ role_name }}/pam_duo.conf /etc/duo/pam_duo.conf"

- name: Secure configuration
  file:
    path: /etc/duo/pam_duo.conf
    owner: root
    group: root
    mode: 0600

- name: Configure PAM common
  copy:
    src: common_auth
    dest: /etc/pam.d/common_auth
    owner: root
    group: root
    mode: 0644

- name: Configure PAM sshd
  copy:
    src: sshd
    dest: /etc/pam.d/sshd
    owner: root
    group: root
    mode: 0644

- name: Configure sshd
  copy:
    src: sshd_config
    dest: /etc/ssh/sshd_config
    owner: root
    group: root
    mode: 0644

- name: Restart sshd
  service:
    name: sshd
    state: restarted
    daemon_reload: yes

The duo configuration file contains secrets, so it is downloaded from the encrypted S3 bucket in the* secrets/bastion* path:

; This file is managed by Ansible, do not modify locally
[duo]
ikey = [redacted]
skey = [redacted]
host = [redacted]

failmode = safe

; Send command for Duo Push authentication
pushinfo = yes
autopush = yes

The remaining files are kept in version control for auditing:

# This file is managed by Ansible, do not modify locally

# /etc/pam.d/common-auth - authentication settings common to all services
#
# This file is included from other service-specific PAM config files,
# and should contain a list of the authentication modules that define
# the central authentication scheme for use on the system
# (e.g., /etc/shadow, LDAP, Kerberos, etc.).  The default is to use the
# traditional Unix authentication mechanisms.
#
# As of pam 1.0.1-6, this file is managed by pam-auth-update by default.
# To take advantage of this, it is recommended that you configure any
# local modules either before or after the default block, and use
# pam-auth-update to manage selection of other modules.  See
# pam-auth-update(8) for details.

# here are the per-package modules (the "Primary" block)
#auth[success=1 default=ignore]pam_unix.so nullok_secure
auth  requisite pam_unix.so nullok_secure
auth  [success=1 default=ignore] /lib64/security/pam_duo.so
# here's the fallback if no module succeeds
authrequisitepam_deny.so
# prime the stack with a positive return value if there isn't one already;
# this avoids us returning an error just because nothing sets a success code
# since the modules above will each just jump around
authrequiredpam_permit.so
# and here are more per-package modules (the "Additional" block)
authoptionalpam_cap.so 
# end of pam-auth-update config
# This file is managed by Ansible, do not modify locally

# PAM configuration for the Secure Shell service

# Standard Un*x authentication.
#@include common-auth

# Disallow non-root logins when /etc/nologin exists.
account    required     pam_nologin.so

# Uncomment and edit /etc/security/access.conf if you need to set complex
# access limits that are hard to express in sshd_config.
# account  required     pam_access.so

# Standard Un*x authorization.
@include common-account

# SELinux needs to be the first session rule.  This ensures that any
# lingering context has been cleared.  Without this it is possible that a
# module could execute code in the wrong domain.
session [success=ok ignore=ignore module_unknown=ignore default=bad]        pam_selinux.so close

# Set the loginuid process attribute.
session    required     pam_loginuid.so

# Create a new session keyring.
session    optional     pam_keyinit.so force revoke

# Standard Un*x session setup and teardown.
@include common-session

# Set up user limits from /etc/security/limits.conf.
session    required     pam_limits.so

# Read environment variables from /etc/environment and
# /etc/security/pam_env.conf.
session    required     pam_env.so # [1]
# In Debian 4.0 (etch), locale-related environment variables were moved to
# /etc/default/locale, so read that as well.
session    required     pam_env.so user_readenv=1 envfile=/etc/default/locale

# SELinux needs to intervene at login time to ensure that the process starts
# in the proper default security context.  Only sessions which are intended
# to run in the user's context should be run after this.
session [success=ok ignore=ignore module_unknown=ignore default=bad]        pam_selinux.so open

# Standard Un*x password updating.
@include common-password

# Duo MFA authentication
auth  [success=1 default=ignore] /lib64/security/pam_duo.so
auth  requisite pam_deny.so
auth  required pam_permit.so
# This file is managed by Ansible, do not modify locally

# This is the sshd server system-wide configuration file.  See
# sshd_config(5) for more information.

# This sshd was compiled with PATH=/usr/bin:/bin:/usr/sbin:/sbin

Protocol 2
StrictModes yes

AuthenticationMethods publickey,keyboard-interactive
PubkeyAuthentication yes
ChallengeResponseAuthentication yes
PasswordAuthentication no

X11Forwarding yes

AcceptEnv LANG LC_*

Subsystem sftp /usr/lib/openssh/sftp-server

UsePAM yes
UseDNS no

Create the Ansible playbook tarball that extracts to ansible/ and upload it to the S3 bucket specified in Terraform. Apply the Terraform for IAM first, and then continue to the EC2 instances. Minutes later, you will be able to login to your bastion hosts with Duo MFA.

You now have a framework that is easy to extend – add software packages to existing host roles, customizing configuration, and adding new host roles that consume software packages. A special thanks to [@_p0pr0ck5_](https://twitter.com/_p0pr0ck5_)@_p0pr0ck5_ for his work on the variable hierarchy loading in Ansible.

**Topics**
- [API Development](/blog/tag/api-development)API Development- [GitOps](/blog/tag/gitops)GitOps
Dennis Kelly

Recommended posts

## Ready to see Kong in action?

Get a personalized walkthrough of Kong's platform tailored to your architecture, use cases, and scale requirements.

[Get a Demo](/contact-sales)Get a Demo